Essay on Internet as the Trigger of Shifting from CopyRIGHT to CopyLEFTEssay Writing Service

Essay on Internet as the Trigger of Shifting from CopyRIGHT to CopyLEFTEssay Writing Service Essay on Internet as the Trigger of Shifting from CopyRIGHT to CopyLEFT Essay on Internet as the Trigger of Shifting from CopyRIGHT to CopyLEFTToday, the development of internet opens new opportunities for information sharing. At first glance, internet facilitates communication between people and opens wider opportunities for sharing information between people, regardless physical distance between them. On the other hand, the development of internet has raised the problem of the violation of the copyright and the unauthorized use of intellectual property, such as music, audio and video records and other items of the intellectual property.The development of internet opened new opportunities for people to communicate and share information using the full potential of internet as the global network. In this regard, the main problem that owners of intellectual property rights faced along with the development of internet became the problem of sharing files containing their intellectual property. For instance, authors of books and other print media could suffer from sharing their print works which have been digitalized and in electronic form shared between users via internet, while authors of those print works would receive nothing and, thus, suffer from financial losses caused by the free sharing of their intellectual property between users.However, singers and audio recording companies suffered probably the most significant losses because of the development of internet. Users have started to share music files via internet. As a result, one user could purchase a licensed CD, copy music files and share them online with millions of other users worldwide while singers and audio recording companies suffered from financial losses because millions of users received their products for nothing downloading them from free online resources due to other users, who shared those files. The similar problems faced film companies and other owners of audio and visual products which were shared online freely, while their owners suffered unparalleled financ ial losses.At this point, it is possible to refer to the case of Napster, a file-sharing service, which offered users an opportunity to share files for free. As a result, this online service became the major online service allowing sharing files for free. As a rule, users shared music, video files and other files which they wanted to share with other users. Naturally, the online service became extremely popular because the new service offered users an excellent opportunity to download their favourite music or film absolutely free and paying nothing, while, otherwise, they would have to purchase either licensed CDs or purchase the same music and video from online stores. In the course of the decade of its intensive development, Napster became one of the largest online services that became the major threat to copyright and intellectual property rights’ owners (Singing a Different Tune, 2009). More important, similar services have started to emerge raising the threat to intellec tual property rights owners and related businesses. Obviously, the development of free online file-sharing services became the threat to the music industry with the music records sales cut substantially since even Apples popular digital iTunes store is little more than a niche service: fully 95% of downloads are illegal, according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), a trade groupIn responses to the emerging free sharing of information and files online, owners of intellectual property rights and large corporations have started to push on governments to protect their rights and prevent the risk of misusing of their products by users for free (Lessig, 2001). The main reason for the enhancement of the existing legislation to protect the copyright was financial losses of intellectual property rights owners (Singing a Different Tune, 2009).Governments have started to tighten and enhance regulations, copyright and intellectual property rights laws. The enfo rcement of the international Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) via legislation of SOPA and PIPA (Stop Online Piracy Act and the Protect IP Act) .In response to numerous threats and violations of intellectual property rights, legislators introduced the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), which provided that an Internet site is â€Å"dedicated to theft of U.S. property† if it â€Å"is marketed by its operator or another acting in concert with that operator for use in, offering goods or services in a manner that engages in, enables, or facilitates† copyright infringement (Carrier, 21).Another major legislative act that enhanced the copyright and intellectual property rights and their protection from online violations was the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA), which was a treaty, conducted largely in secret, designed to â€Å"address the problem of infringement of intellectual property rights, including infringement taking place in the digital environment.â⠂¬  (Carrier, 23).In addition, the Protect IP Act (PIPA) enhanced the legislation providing attorney with an opportunity to make the IP service provider to deny users violating the copyright and intellectual property rights access to internet (Carrier, 22). As a result, the PIPA creates condition for the selective punishment of those users, who abuse the copyright and intellectual property rights intentionally and purposefully.In fact, such large scale struggle against the violation of copyright and intellectual property rights became global. Results of such a struggle became quite controversial. On the one hand, individuals and organizations, which promote and deliver file-sharing services, software and other tools which allow sharing files and potentially violate copyright and intellectual property rights, face the threat of the legal prosecution. At this point, it is possible to refer to the case of Richard O’Dwyer, the founder of the tvshack.net, the online service that allowed users to track and record TV programs online, including not only open and legal sources but also illegal ones (Ball, 3). In such a way, the product created by O’Dwyer allowed users to record TV programs illegally, violating copyright and intellectual property rights.In such a situation, the enhancement of the copyright and intellectual property rights laws contributed to the enhancement of the legal basis for the prosecution of individuals and organisations that share or create products or services that allow sharing information between users without respect to copyright and intellectual property rights.On the other hand, the enhancement of the copyright and intellectual property rights legislation raises the problem of the interference of government regulations into the basic rights, including the right to the freedom of press and speech. At any rate, internet provides users with an opportunity to share information freely, while existing regulations raise the problem of the limitation of users’ right and opportunity to share information online freely.In this regard, the enhancement of the copyright law on the pretext of the protection of intellectual property rights raises the problem of the interference of private interests into the public domain. To put it more precisely, Gaylor (2008) stands on the ground that internet is the public domain and people from all over the world should have an opportunity to share files and information online freely. Gaylor insists that people can use movies, songs, music and other products for their own creativity. They can make remixes to manifest their creativity and implement their own ideas. However, limitations imposed on sharing files and information online in terms of the existing legislation that aims at the enhancement of the copyright and intellectual property rights laws deprive people of an opportunity to exercise their creativity and use available products and information freely.At this point , it is important to place emphasis on the fact that the main debate today involves two different views on internet. In fact, the existing legislation is not just the matter of the protection of copyright and intellectual property rights but it is also and mainly the opposition between the average users, who are naturally interested in the free use and sharing of information online, and large corporations that attempt to protect their financial interests since their profits rely heavily on sales of their intellectual property. Gaylor and other proponents of the view on internet as the public domain that should allow users to share information freely hold the premise that legislators and private companies as well as individuals owning intellectual property rights should not regulate internet use. In such a way, they will interfere into public matters. In such a context, the ban of sharing information online is like the ban to share purchased products between people. For instance, the ban of sharing files and information online that potentially violates copyright and intellectual property rights is like the ban to individuals to pass their licensed CD to their friends to use files or information stored on the CD in the real world, i.e. physically but not online.Large corporations and intellectual property rights hold the totally different premise that internet is not exactly the public domain but the tool that is used by users to violate their copyright and intellectual property rights. Obviously, the position of owners of copyright and intellectual property rights is determined by their financial concerns because the free sharing of files and information online leads to their financial losses. At this point, it is worth reminding consistent financial losses of the music industry associated with Napster and other online services (Singing a Different Tune, 2009). Their financial losses became the major reason for their pressure on the government to prevent free f ile and information sharing online.Nevertheless, the idea of the free use of information available online and sharing files and information online without limitations becomes more and more popular that leads to the emergence of new online services and resources, where users can share files and information, although they still have to respect existing copyright and intellectual property rights laws. The enhancement of the movement for the free use of internet for file and information sharing contributes to the emergence of creative commons, which unite people, who use their own creativity to make products that may be interesting for other users and allow users to share those products online without imposing any limitations on the use of those products and their protection by the copyright or intellectual property rights (Lessig, 2001). Such commons become cultural and creative centres which open wide opportunities for the average users not only to use products of contributors of crea tive commons but also to become contributors themselves and create new products that may be interesting for the online community.   Potentially, such creative commons can and do compete with audio recording companies, film making companies and other companies and individuals, who stand for the protection of their copyright and intellectual property rights. In such a situation, creative commons become more and more popular because they become free sources for sharing creative products of many users (Creative Commons Case Studies, 29).   As a result, the average users tend to use products of creative commons instead of purchasing licensed products online.At this point, it is possible to refer to the case of Magnatune, the online record label that uses creative commons licenses to promote its catalogue with free samples of songs and diverse pricing models. In fact, the emergence of such services and companies as Magnatune can contribute to the further accelerated growth of creative commons that will put under a threat the position of audio recording and film making companies as well as other owners of copyright and intellectual property rights. In such a way, creative commons can reach the high level of performance, while Magnatune and other companies and services alike can make their functioning profitable that will stimulate users to contribute more to creative commons as well as to use their services and products more extensively.Thus, taking into account all above mentioned, it is important to place emphasis on the fact that the development of internet has raised the problem of the violation of copyright and intellectual property rights because of the free sharing of files online by users via such services as Napster. However, legislators driven by audio recording, film making and other companies and individuals owning copyright and intellectual property rights to enhance legislation to protect those rights. In response, the online community shifted towar d the emergence of creative commons which open opportunities for creating products and using them freely online sharing files and information for free. In the future, creative commons can challenge the position of conventional audio recording and film making companies as well as other owners of copyright and intellectual property rights.

Explicación sencilla del sistema educativo en EE.UU.

Explicacià ³n sencilla del sistema educativo en EE.UU. Para los recià ©n llegados a Estados Unidos, el sistema educativo es uno de los grandes misterios y uno de los temas que ms inquietudes plantea. Para navegarlo exitosamente es importante entender los puntos bsicos de la educacià ³n obligatoria. En este artà ­culo se resuelven dudas sobre quà © aà ±os comprende la educacià ³n obligatoria, tipos de escuelas, cules son los grados y, finalmente, temas especiales como estatus migratorio y escuelas pà ºblicas, alimentos, educacià ³n especial, etc. Aà ±os de educacià ³n obligatoria en EE.UU.: K-12 En Estados Unidos la educacià ³n es obligatoria entre los grados K-12, esto quiere decir, entre kindergarten -preescolar- al grado 12. Lo que no es tan claro es a quà © edad se debe comenzar en kindergarten y a cul finalizar los estudios obligatorios ya que cada estado establece sus propias reglas. Pero en general puede decirse que en algà ºn punto entre los 5 y los 8 aà ±os los nià ±os deben escolarizarse y deben estudiar hasta los 16 o, en algunos estados, 18-19 aà ±os. Por ejemplo, en California es obligatoria la enseà ±anza entre las edades de 6 y 18 aà ±os, pero se permite dejar de estudiar a los 16 si el estudiante se ha graduado de high school o ha obtenido el tà ­tulo equivalente que se conoce como CHSPE y, adems, tiene el permiso de sus padres. Por otro lado, en Connecticut la educacià ³n es obligatoria entre los 5 y los 18 aà ±os, permitiendo la ley multas y cargos delictivos contra los padres que no envà ­an a sus hijos a las escuelas.  ¿Dà ³nde deben escolarizarse los nià ±os? Estados Unidos brinda un amplio abanico de posibilidades para enviar a las escuelas a nià ±os, desde escuelas pà ºblicas y todas sus variedades o privadas y todas las diferentes opciones, pasando por educacià ³n en casa. Segà ºn el Centro Nacional de Estadà ­sticas para la Educacià ³n, 50.700.000 estudiantes estudian en escuelas pà ºblicas, es decir, la mayorà ­a de los pupilos en edad de estudios obligatorios. Las escuelas pà ºblicas se caracterizan por: ser gratuitas para los estudianteslos fondos provienen del gobierno federal, el estado, el condado, la municipalidad o una combinacià ³n de variosestn obligadas a admitir a los estudiantes que habitualmente residen en el distrito escolar En algunos estados se permite que los padres puedan elegir escuela. Tambià ©n es frecuente que se permitan alternativas a los padres cuando la calidad de las escuelas del lugar donde residen deja mucho que desear en cuanto a calidad, mediante el sistema que se conoce como voucher. Existen varios tipos de escuelas pà ºblicas. En primer lugar, estn las regulares. Algunas son excelentes. Adems de las regulares, estn las chapter, que son escuelas que funcionan con fondos pà ºblicos pero que son gestionadas privadamente por empresas, por cooperativas de maestros o, incluso, por padres o por comunidades. Existe una importante diferencia en calidad de la enseà ±anza entre distintas escuelas chapters, por lo que si esa es la opcià ³n de los padres es muy conveniente que investiguen antes de registrar a sus hijos. Adems, estn las escuelas pà ºblicas conocidas como magnet, que son escuelas pà ºblicas que destacan por su excelencia acadà ©mica. Se especializan en un rea acadà ©mica en particular. Las magnet se caracterizan por asegurar la diversidad à ©tnica y racial de sus estudiantes.  En esta base de datos se puede ver cules son las mejor calificadas en todo Estados Unidos, permitià ©ndose una bà ºsqueda por estados. Por otro lado, tambià ©n existen varios tipos de escuelas privadas en las que en la actualidad estudian poco menos de 6 millones de alumnos.  En este tipo de escuelas los estudiantes envà ­an una solicitud y deben esperar a ver si son admitidos. Asimismo, deben pagar por sus estudios, aunque hay casos en los que hay becas disponibles para los mejores estudiantes sin recursos econà ³micos. En Estados Unidos, donde 1 de cada 3 high schools son privadas, existen los siguientes tipos de escuelas de esta naturaleza: En primer lugar, estn las Escuelas independientes, que no pueden recibir fondos de grupos religiosos, aunque pueden tener una estrecha relacià ³n con ellos. Hay menos de 2,000 pero se encuentran dentro de esta categorà ­a las famosas  Phillips Academy  Andover, con un excelente sistema de becas para  estudiantes excelentes pero sin recursos,  y Exeter. En segundo lugar, hay escuelas parroquiales, que estn estrechamente vinculadas con una iglesia y son muy populares, conformando el mayor nà ºmero de escuelas privadas. En los Estados Unidos la mayorà ­a son catà ³licas, aunque tambià ©n las hay protestantes y judà ­as. Un aspecto a tener en cuenta es que son, en general, notablemente ms baratas que las escuelas independientes. En tercer lugar, destacar las escuelas privadas con fin de lucro, que se conocen en inglà ©s como proprietary schools.   Por à ºltimo, existe una alternativa a las escuelas pà ºblicas y a las privadas: la escolaridad en casa y es que en los Estados Unidos ms de un millà ³n y medio de estudiantes reciben la educacià ³n en sus casas, lo que se conoce como home schooling,  actuando como profesores sus padres, maestros-tutores contratados o, incluso, siguiendo cursos completos por internet. Los requerimientos en cuanto a la obligacià ³n de notificar esta opcià ³n de enseà ±anza, rendir exmenes o curriculum a seguir varà ­a enormemente entre los diferentes estados, por lo que es necesario informarse en profundidad de las reglas que rigen en el lugar de residencia habitual.    ¿Cà ³mo se dividen las escuelas por grados? Es muy comà ºn encontrar estos tipos de escuelas: En primer lugar, Primaria, conocida en inglà ©s como elementary school. Los muchachos estudian hasta los grados 5to o 6to, dependiendo de los distritos. Como regla general, hasta que tienen 11-12 aà ±os. En segundo lugar, Intermediaria, conocida en inglà ©s como middle school y tambià ©n como junior high. No existe en todos los distritos y donde sà ­ la hay, hay variacià ³n en los grados que la componen, siendo comà ºn que comprenda 4to, 5to y 6to grado. Se trata de un paso intermedio entre la primaria y la secundaria. En tercer lugar, Secundaria, conocida en inglà ©s como high school. comprende los grados 9 a 12 y comienza a la edad de 14-15 aà ±os. Hay una gran variedad de tipos de high school, como las especializadas en preparar para college y universidad, especiales, vocacionales  o alternativas. Las personas que alcanzan los 19 aà ±os de edad y no han obtenido el diploma de high school pueden sacar una certificacià ³n alternativa. La ms conocida es el GED, que tambià ©n se puede rendir en espaà ±ol. Pero hay otras opciones, dependiendo de los estados, como por ejemplo el TASC y el HiSET. Adems, en el caso de los mexicanos es posible obtener el certificado de bachillerato de Mà ©xico sin salir de los Estados Unidos.  ¿Quà © hay sobre la educacià ³n temprana  o pre-k? La educacià ³n temprana  no es obligatoria pero se brinda en un buen nà ºmero de escuelas pà ºblicas y privadas. Comienza a partir de los 3 aà ±os y el programa Head Start promueve la participacià ³n de nià ±os de bajos recursos. Los padres o tutores interesados deben consultar con las opciones en su lugar de residencia, ya que hay grandes diferencias entre distritos y estados. Escuelas, derechos migrantes y problemtica de visas Todos los nià ±os en edad de recibir educacià ³n obligatoria, es decir, en grados K-12 tienen derecho a asistir a una escuela pà ºblica en el distrito de su residencia habitual. Esto aplica por supuesto a los ciudadanos americanos, a los residentes permanentes y  Ã‚  tambià ©n a los nià ±os indocumentados. Asà ­ lo establecià ³ claramente una sentencia de la Corte Suprema que se conoce como Plyler v. Doe. Los padres, madres o tutores que confronten problemas por su estatus migratorio o el de sus nià ±os pueden contactar con Equity and Civil Rights, explicar su problema y solicitar que se cumpla la ley. Tambià ©n pueden asistir a las escuelas pà ºblicas los nià ±os presentes en los Estados Unidos con visas derivadas, como por ejemplo, la F-2, la H-4 o la J-2. Tambià ©n los hijos de extranjeros con visas de inversià ³n E-1 o E-2 vlidas. Sin embargo, la situacià ³n es muy diferente para el caso de nià ±os que ingresan a los Estados Unidos con visa de turista. Estudiar en una escuela pà ºblica significa que se est cometiendo una infraccià ³n migratoria y cada vez es ms frecuente que se le revoque la visa al nià ±o y tambià ©n a sus padres. Son varias las opciones de visa para estudiar en Estados Unidos que se brinda a esos nià ±os. Es muy importante entender que desde el punto de vista de la ley migratoria y las escuelas es muy distinta la situacià ³n de un nià ±o indocumentado, que sà ­ puede ir a las escuelas, y la de un nià ±o que ingresa al paà ­s con visa de turista y pretende asistir a una escuela pà ºblica. Estos  nià ±os no estn protegidos por Plyler v. Doe. Idioma, educacià ³n especial, vacunas y alimentos Si los nià ±os no hablan inglà ©s o si los padres desean que hablen con fluidez inglà ©s y espaà ±ol, pueden considerar los programas de educacià ³n que se brindan en uno o ambos idiomas. Hay una gran variedad de opciones, dependiendo del lugar de residencia. Madres, padres y tutores de nià ±os con situaciones especiales, como por ejemplo autismo, epilepsia, parlisis cerebral, etc deben explorar las diversas opciones de educacià ³n especial que mejor se ajusten a las necesidades de sus hijos. Hay opciones muy diversas, desde integracià ³n a escuelas especiales. Lamentablemente, las oportunidades no son las mismas y dependen en gran medida del lugar de residencia. Entre los requerimientos para registrar nià ±os para las escuelas es muy comà ºn el de pedir el rà ©cord de vacunas, si bien esto no es igual en todos los estados y hay importantes diferencias. En esta pgina en espaà ±ol de Los Centros para el Control y Prevencià ³n de Enfermedades se explica informacià ³n muy importante sobre dà ³nde llevar al nià ±o a vacunar, cules son las vacunas y la edad para recibirlas e incluso quià ©n puede obtener ayuda econà ³mica para las vacunaciones. Finalmente, destacar que todos los nià ±os enrolados en escuelas pà ºblicas o en privadas sin fin de lucro pueden recibir asistencia de alimentos si asà ­ lo precisan. Es indiferente su estatus migratorio y/o el de sus padres ya que lo à ºnico que se tiene en cuenta es la situacià ³n alimentaria del nià ±o. El programa ms grande es el Programa Nacional de Almuerzos Escolares. Tambià ©n destacar el Programa de Desayunos Gratuitos. Estas ayudas tambià ©n estn disponibles en verano cuando las escuelas no estn en activo. Despuà ©s de la educacià ³n obligatoria La enseà ±anza superior puede seguirse en colleges o universidades. Es importante considerar el costo e intentar evitar, en la medida de lo posible, llegar al momento de recibir el tà ­tulo con mucha deuda, ya que puede ser un gran lastre. Considerar las opciones de becas, debiendo los estudiantes excelentes esforzarse y animarse y creerse que pueden optar a lo mejor. Estas son 12 universidades de à ©lite que becan a todo tipo de estudiantes, incluidos los indocumentados. Tambià ©n considerar la opcià ³n de los colegios comunitarios, que resultan ms econà ³micos, adems de brindar otras ventajas. Puntos clave: educacià ³n en Estados Unidos En Estados Unidos, la educacià ³n de los nià ±os y adolescentes es obligatoria.Tipos de escuelas: pà ºblicas (50,7 millones de estudiantes) y privadas (5,9 millones de alumnos). Tambià ©n es legal recibir educacià ³n en casa, pero cada estado regula este derecho de diferente manera.Categorà ­as de escuelas pà ºblicas: regulares, chapter y magnet.Educacià ³n obligatoria y migracià ³n: por sentencia de la Corte Suprema Plyler vs. Doe de 1982, los nià ±os indocumentados tienen derecho a estudiar en escuelas pà ºblicas. Los nià ±os con visas derivadas hijos de trabajadores temporales o estudiantes internacionales tienen tambià ©n ese derecho. Por el contrario, es ilegal estudiar con una visa de turista. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

THE FEDERAL BUDGET PROCESS Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

THE FEDERAL BUDGET PROCESS - Research Paper Example BODY 1. The History of the Federal Budget process A. Changes made to the process Prior to 1921 Changes made to the process entail how the federal budget process was prior to the three laws, which govern it today. To begin with, preceding the 1921 budget and Accounting Act, the federal budget process was at the discretion of the Congress. The Congress made decisions on how much it was willing to impose as tax, expenditures to be incurred, and if there was need to borrow funds. This bill was taking for presidential accent each year. The enacted federal budget process could then be transferred to the Executive branch that was bestowed with the responsibility of its execution (Fischer, 1975). Budgetary, fiscal, and economic evolutionary changes necessitated the need for a more coordinated federal budget process. This saw the birth of the Federal Reserve System in 1913 that was aimed at coordinating monetary policies, controlling money supply, and centralizing the regulation of the bankin g system (Anderson, Davis & Gullo, 2003). Budget and Accounting Act 1921 The Act necessitated the need for the President to tender a particular consolidated budget each year for consideration by the Congress in bid to developing a synchronized federal budget process. This Act also brought into implementation the Bureau of the Budget that was aimed at making the presidents’ means of generating a tender more efficient. Consequently, this Act brought to existence the General Accounting Office the aided in accountability checks of the Congress. In addition, this Act provided regulations that inhibited agencies from proposing for supplementary appropriations (Anderson, Davis & Gullo,... The paper tells that the federal budget process has four main functions: responsible for the development of the macro fiscal policy attained through the determination of the proportion of the federal surplus or deficit. Secondly, the federal budget process plays a role in setting priorities across the competing programs and projects requiring the allocation of the limited resources. Thirdly, the federal budget process plays a role in promoting the accountability of agencies responsible for the implementation of fiscal goals contained in the budget. Finally, the federal budget process has a function in promoting consideration of the impacts made by decisions accrued today as pertains to the budget, and economies of the prospect. Federal budget process has evolved with time to accommodate the challenging economic situations. On relevance is the social security benefit, which has attributed to the increase in government deficit. This is since the federal government ends up incurring mor e expenses financing the elderly and compensating retired workers who are not bringing any income to the nation. The Congress has come up with alternatives to the social security benefit like the Individualized Retirement Account and Universal Pensions. Deficits in the federal budget process can be corrected by cutting on the expenditure and increasing the GDP every fiscal year. The federal budget process in bid to cushion itself has also implemented the budget cuts where there is less money in circulation affecting the individual expenditure.